Mammalian bombesin-like peptide neurotransmitter that is an agonist for the gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR). GRP has been reported to activate GABAergic interneurons in the amygdala leading to increased GABA release and fear suppression in mice in vivo. Also involved in mitogenesis, and GI tract and appetite regulation.

Endogenous high affinity agonist for human NPY Y4 receptor (Ki = 0.056 nM). Believed to play an important role in the function of the gastrointestinal tract.

Echimidine, a major hepatotoxic dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid produced by E. plantagineum, in the honey (780 ng/g) and in the subsequent mead samples (236-540 ng/mL). Echimidine-N-Oxide has antifungal activity.